Space Exploration

NASA Plans to Resume ISS Spacewalks in 2025 After Addressing Spacesuit Leak Problem

By Jonathan Bala October 31, 2024

NASA Plans to Resume ISS Spacewalks in 2025 After Addressing Spacesuit Leak Problem

NASA’s International Space Station (ISS) program has announced plans to resume spacewalks in early 2025. These activities were suspended following a spacesuit coolant leak in June 2024 that required addressing several safety concerns. After meticulous repairs and safety reviews, the organization believes it will be prepared to continue these essential maintenance operations. While NASA’s existing extravehicular mobility unit (EMU) spacesuits have a legacy dating back to the 1980s, the space agency is also exploring advanced spacesuit designs in collaboration with the private sector to meet evolving space exploration needs.

Summary

Leak Incident and Response: A coolant leak halted spacewalks in June 2024, leading NASA to suspend these activities for safety.
Resolution and Timeline: Repairs have been made to affected suits, with spacewalks expected to resume in early 2025.
Spacesuit Evolution: NASA’s EMU suits have served since the 1980s but are now facing issues that prompt considerations for advanced models.
Private Sector Involvement: NASA is partnering with private firms to create next-gen spacesuits, suited to diverse body types and mission profiles.
Safety as a Priority: The suspension highlighted NASA’s commitment to astronaut safety, emphasizing structured testing and improvements.

Astronaut spaceman do spacewalk while working for spaceflight mission at space station . Astronaut wear full spacesuit for operation . Elements of this image furnished by NASA space astronaut photos .

NASA’s Plans to Resume ISS Spacewalks in 2025

Since its inception, NASA’s International Space Station (ISS) program has been one of the most successful collaborative efforts in space exploration, involving agencies such as the European Space Agency (ESA) and Roscosmos. Spacewalks, also known as extravehicular activities (EVAs), are critical to ISS operations, allowing astronauts to conduct repairs, install equipment, and ensure the space station’s structural integrity.

Table 1: Historical Milestones of ISS Spacewalks

Year	Milestone	Description
1998	First ISS Spacewalk	Conducted to prepare the first modules for assembly.
2013	Water Leak Incident	Italian astronaut Luca Parmitano’s helmet filled with water, leading to a temporary suspension of EVAs.
2022	Coolant Leak Incident	A helmet water leak led to a seven-month suspension of spacewalks.
2024	Recent Coolant Leak Suspension	Spacewalks were suspended in June following a leak in astronaut Tracy Dyson’s suit.

The recent incident in June 2024 halted spacewalks indefinitely after NASA astronaut Tracy Dyson experienced a coolant leak in her spacesuit’s umbilical connector. Although Dyson and her partner, astronaut Mike Barratt, were not in immediate danger, the event emphasized NASA’s strict safety protocols. “We’ll look for the next opportunity… It’s not time-critical or urgent,” stated Dana Weigel, ISS program manager at NASA.

The June 2024 incident involved NASA’s long-used extravehicular mobility units (EMUs). These suits are vital for the station’s external operations, but the recent leak exposed vulnerabilities in their aging design. During a routine maintenance operation, a leak in Dyson’s suit led to the formation of ice particles. NASA responded swiftly, suspending spacewalks to thoroughly assess and resolve the issue.

“Safety is our top priority, and we took immediate steps to address any possible risks for our astronauts,” explained Bill Spetch, NASA’s ISS operations and integration manager.

Table 2: Components of the Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU)

Component	Description
Hard Upper Torso (HUT)	Provides structural support and houses the life support system.
Display and Control Module (DCM)	Allows astronauts to monitor suit pressure, oxygen levels, and other vitals.
Primary Life Support System (PLSS)	Supplies oxygen and removes carbon dioxide, also including temperature regulation systems.
Lower Torso Assembly (LTA)	Includes mobility components like joints for movement and boots.
Thermal Micrometeoroid Garment	Offers protection from space debris and extreme temperatures.

Safety Improvements and Planned Resumption of Spacewalks

With modifications made to the affected spacesuits, NASA has greenlit the tentative resumption of spacewalks for early 2025. Following the coolant leak, NASA addressed the issue by replacing the defective seal and repressurizing the suit to ensure its operational safety.

According to Spetch, “It’s just a matter of when is the right timing.” Spetch clarified that spacewalks will be strategically scheduled around other ISS activities, including crew arrivals and ongoing research experiments. NASA is also developing a new procedure checklist to ensure suit integrity before each EVA.

NASA’s Evolving Approach to Spacesuit Technology

NASA’s EMU suits, originally designed in the 1970s and adjusted over time, are based on designs from the Space Shuttle program. While reliable, the suits face limitations due to their sizing bias toward larger body types, reflecting the historical composition of the astronaut corps. This challenge, combined with recent leak incidents, has prompted NASA to seek newer spacesuit solutions through partnerships with private companies.

In 2023, NASA awarded contracts to firms like Collins Aerospace and Axiom Space to develop next-generation spacesuits. These partnerships are geared toward creating suits that are more adaptable, lightweight, and equipped with enhanced life support and mobility systems.

However, despite Collins Aerospace’s initial involvement, the company withdrew from its contract in 2024. “Their timeline would not support the space station’s schedule and NASA’s mission objectives,” stated a NASA spokesperson. NASA is evaluating alternatives to continue fulfilling ISS requirements while keeping pace with advanced designs suited for lunar missions under the Artemis program.

NASA’s push for spacesuit redesigns aligns with its ambitious plans, particularly under the Artemis program, aimed at establishing a sustained human presence on the Moon and beyond. Spacesuits suitable for lunar conditions will need to offer protection against fine lunar dust, extreme temperature shifts, and potential long-term wear.

Key Design Goals for Next-Gen Spacesuits

Improved Mobility: Enhanced joint flexibility to facilitate movement on rugged terrains.
Adaptability to Body Types: Suits designed to accommodate a wider range of astronaut body sizes.
Lightweight Construction: Lighter materials to reduce energy consumption and improve ease of movement.
Advanced Life Support: Redundant systems for oxygen supply, temperature control, and CO₂ removal.
Modular Components: Interchangeable parts for repairs, reducing the need for new suits.

The Importance of Spacewalks for ISS Operations

Spacewalks remain indispensable to the ISS’s mission, enabling hands-on inspections and upgrades to hardware and infrastructure. Astronauts routinely inspect solar arrays, communications devices, and thermal control systems that require exposure to the harsh space environment. With the next spacewalk cycle approaching, NASA aims to resume maintenance tasks on crucial ISS components.

NASA is focused on making spacewalks safer and improving the technology used in them. This focus is part of its larger goals. The agency is planning to take on more challenging missions. Spacewalks are also known as EVAs (Extravehicular Activities), which are when astronauts leave their spacecraft to work in space. Earth’s orbit is becoming a busy place. It is important for scientific research and commercial businesses. Reliable and safe spacesuits are necessary. They will be crucial if people are going to live and work in orbit for a long time.

By investing in modern spacesuit technology, NASA is reinforcing its strategy to empower astronauts with advanced tools and equipment. These innovations hold promise not only for ISS operations but also for NASA’s ambitions for lunar and Martian exploration.

#NASA, #ISS, #Spacewalk, #Spacesuit, #NASAInnovation, #SpaceExploration, #SpaceSafety, #ISSUpdates, #SpacesuitTechnology, #NASAArtemis, #FutureOfSpace, #PrivateSpaceSector, #AstronautSafety, #SpaceResearch, #HumanSpaceflight

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Space Exploration

Chinese Lunar Mission Finds Naturally Formed Graphene on the Moon

By Jonathan Bala August 3, 2024

Chinese Lunar Mission Finds Naturally Formed Graphene on the Moon

Scientists have discovered naturally formed graphene on the Moon. This discovery could revolutionize our understanding of lunar formation and graphene production. Future lunar missions could utilize this material for infrastructure development. The discovery was made by a team led by researchers from the Chinese Academy of Sciences and Jilin University. These findings challenge previous beliefs about the carbon content on the Moon.

Summary

Graphene Discovery: Naturally formed graphene found on the Moon.
Significance: Potential impact on lunar science and graphene manufacturing.
Team: Led by CAS and Jilin University researchers.
Method: Spectroscopic analysis of lunar soil sample from Chang’e 5 mission.
Implications: Insights into lunar formation, volcanic activity, and solar wind impact.
Applications: Electronics, power storage, construction, and supermaterials.
Future Missions: Potential for creating permanent lunar infrastructure.
Historical Context: Challenges the Giant Impact Hypothesis.
Manufacturing: Potential for low-cost graphene synthesis.
Collaborations: Involvement of multiple key laboratories and research centers.

The Discovery of Graphene on the Moon

In 2004, scientists at the University of Manchester first isolated and investigated graphene, the supermaterial composed of single-layer carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal honeycomb lattice. Since then, it has become a wonder, with properties that make it extremely useful in numerous applications. Among scientists, it is generally believed that about 1.9% of carbon in the interstellar medium (ISM) exists in the form of graphene, with its shape and structure determined by the process of its formation.

As it happens, there could be lots of this supermaterial on the surface of the Moon. In a recent study, researchers from the Chinese Academy of Science (CAS) revealed naturally formed graphene arranged in a special thin-layered structure on the Moon. These findings could have drastic implications for our understanding of how the Moon formed and lead to new methods for the manufacture of graphene, with applications ranging from electronics, power storage, construction, and supermaterials. They could also prove useful for future missions that will create permanent infrastructure on the lunar surface.

The team was led by professors Wei Zhang and Meng Zou from the Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering and the Jilin Provincial International Cooperation Key Laboratory of High-Efficiency Clean Energy Materials at Jilin University, Jilin University senior engineer Xiujuan Li, and Wencai Ren from the CAS’ Institute of Metal Research (CAS-ISM). They were joined by colleagues from multiple Key Laboratories at Jilin University, the CAS-ISM, the Deep Space Exploration Lab, and the Lunar Exploration and Space Engineering Center. The paper that describes their findings appeared in the National Science Review.

The Giant Impact Hypothesis and Lunar Carbon Content

For decades, scientists have speculated that the Earth-Moon system was formed from a massive collision – the Giant Impact Hypothesis – between a Mars-sized body (Theia) and Earth roughly 4.4 billion years ago. This theory is supported by analyses of the moon rocks returned by the Apollo astronauts, which led to the notion of a carbon-depleted Moon. However, recent findings have come to challenge this consensus based on the observation of global carbon ion fluxes on the Moon, which suggest the presence of indigenous carbon .

These observations are consistent with the analysis of one of the Apollo 17 samples that showed the presence of graphite. For their study, the team conducted a spectroscopic analysis of an olive-shaped sample of lunar soil (measuring about 2.9 mm by 1.6 mm) retrieved by the Chang’e 5 mission in 2020. This was China’s third robotic mission to reach the lunar surface and its first sample return from the Moon . From the spectra they obtained, they found an iron compound in a carbon-rich section of the sample that is closely related to the formation of graphene.

Formation and Analysis of Lunar Graphene

Upon further analysis using advanced microscopic and mapping technologies, they confirmed that the carbon in the sample was graphene flakes two to seven layers thick. In terms of how it got there, the team proposed that the graphene may have formed during a period of volcanic activity early in the Moon’s history when it was still geologically active. They further hypothesize that the graphene was catalyzed by solar winds that kicked up the lunar regolith and its iron-containing minerals, which could have helped transform the carbon’s atomic structure.

They also allow for the possibility of meteorite impacts, which are also known to create high-temperature and high-pressure environments similar to volcanic activity. As they state in their paper:

“Graphene is embedded as individual flakes or formed as part of a carbon shell enclosing the mineral particles. Our result reveals one typical structure of indigenous carbon in the Moon and its formation mechanism has been proposed. This finding may reinvent the understanding of chemical components, geography episodes and the history of the Moon.”

Chinese Lunar Mission Finds Naturally Formed Graphene on the Moon — Artist’s impression of the interior of the Moon. Credit: Hernán Cañellas/Benjamin Weiss

Potential Applications of Lunar Graphene

These findings could also have a tremendous impact on research here on Earth, where graphene is being investigated for applications ranging from electronics and mechanics to materials science. As they indicate in their study, this study could lead to new methods for inexpensively producing the material and offer additional opportunities for lunar exploration:

“The identification of graphene in the core–shell structure suggests a bottom-up synthesis process rather than exfoliation, which generally involves a high-temperature catalytic reaction. Therefore, a formation mechanism of few-layer graphene and graphitic carbon is proposed here…

“In turn, the mineral-catalysed formation of natural graphene sheds light on the development of low-cost scalable synthesis techniques for high-quality graphene. Therefore, a new lunar exploration program may be promoted and some forthcoming breakthroughs can be expected.”

These findings could also prove useful for future missions that will lead to the development of permanent infrastructure on the lunar surface. This includes NASA’s Artemis Program, which aims to create a “sustained program of lunar exploration and development.” There’s also the ESA’s Moon Village initiative and China and Russia’s plan for an International Lunar Research Station (ILRS). In addition to exploration and scientific research, these programs could conduct experiments on the properties and uses of graphene, which could include the manufacture of lunar habitats.

Tables and Figures

Table 1: Comparison of Graphene Production Methods

Method	Description	Cost	Scalability	Quality
Exfoliation	Mechanical/chemical peeling of layers	High	Low	High
CVD	Chemical vapor deposition	Moderate	Moderate	Moderate
Epitaxial Growth	Layer-by-layer growth on substrates	High	Low	High
Bottom-up Synthesis	Formation from carbon-containing minerals	Low	High	High

Table 2: Potential Applications of Lunar Graphene

Application	Description	Benefit
Electronics	Use in transistors, sensors, and circuits	Higher speed, efficiency, and miniaturization
Power Storage	Batteries and supercapacitors	Increased energy density and faster charging
Construction	Reinforcement of materials	Enhanced strength and durability
Supermaterials	Creation of new, advanced composites	Lightweight, high-performance materials

Conclusion

The discovery of naturally formed graphene on the Moon by researchers from the Chinese Academy of Sciences and Jilin University marks a significant milestone in lunar science and material engineering. This finding challenges existing theories about the Moon’s formation and carbon content, providing new insights into its geological history. Furthermore, the potential applications of lunar graphene could revolutionize industries on Earth and support future lunar missions aimed at establishing permanent infrastructure on the Moon.

The interdisciplinary collaboration between various key laboratories and research centers highlights the importance of international cooperation in advancing our understanding of space and developing innovative technologies. As we continue to explore the Moon and beyond, discoveries like these remind us of the vast potential that lies within our solar system.

For further reading, please visit EurekAlert!, the National Science Review, and Universe Today.

For more information on the research institutions involved, visit the Chinese Academy of Science, Jilin University, Lunar Exploration and Space Engineering Center, and the Deep Space Exploration Lab.

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Space Exploration

Artemis Program: Why a Moon Base Will Need a Transport System

By Jonathan Bala July 9, 2024

Artemis Program: Why a Moon Base Will Need a Transport System

Key Takeaway

The Artemis Program aims to establish a permanent human presence on the Moon, necessitating advanced transport systems to move astronauts and cargo efficiently. Addressing logistical, scientific, and technical requirements, these transport systems will play a crucial role in ensuring the success of lunar missions and the sustainability of human activities on the Moon.

Summary

NASA’s Artemis Program will return astronauts to the Moon for the first time since 1972.
The program aims to establish a permanent human presence on the Moon.
Transport systems are essential for moving astronauts and cargo on the lunar surface.
The 2024 Moon to Mars Architecture white paper highlights the need for lunar mobility systems.
NASA’s objectives include the delivery of crews, supplies, experiments, and habitats.
The Lunar Terrain Vehicle (LTV) and Pressurized Rover (PR) are part of the Artemis Base Camp.
The Artemis Program is divided into three segments: Human Lunar Return (HLR), Foundational Exploration (FE), and Sustained Lunar Evolution (SLR).
The program’s initial missions will require enhanced transport capabilities for crew and cargo.
The lunar surface presents unique challenges, including regolith, lighting conditions, and terrain.
Autonomous and teleoperated systems will be vital for mobility on the Moon.
Energy and environmental considerations are crucial for the design of lunar transport systems.
Future mobility systems will need to be interoperable and capable of autonomous operation.
NASA will address these requirements in the 2024 Architecture Concept Review (2024 ACR).

Artemis Program: Why a Moon Base Will Need a Transport System

NASA’s Artemis Program will send astronauts back to the Moon. The last visit was Apollo 17 in 1972. The next mission is planned for September 2026. NASA will then build the systems needed for yearly trips to the Moon. This will lead to humans living there permanently. There will be a big need for cargo delivery systems. These systems must help with the needs of the crews. They must support their exploration with the right logistical, scientific, and technical support.

We need transportation systems not just for delivering crews and cargo. They must also handle logistical needs and help exploration efforts. These needs were described in a 2024 Moon to Mars Architecture white paper. The paper is titled “Lunar Mobility Drivers and Needs.”

It follows another paper called “Lunar Surface Cargo.” This new white paper talks about the need for lunar infrastructure. Such infrastructure will help move astronauts and payloads from landing sites to important locations. As usual, they found a big gap between what we can currently do and what we expect to need.

The authors again stress the need for mobility systems. These systems should align with NASA’s goals. These goals are outlined in the Moon to Mars Architecture Definition Document (ADD). The authors say recent studies show something important. We need transport systems on the lunar surface. These systems should move cargo from delivery points to usage points. This cargo can include crew supplies, scientific demonstrations, and large infrastructure that needs precise moving.

In short, in addition to landers capable of delivering crews, supplies, experiments, and habitats, NASA’s Moon to Mars program also requires vehicles and support networks that can deliver them from point A to point B. As they state, the currently defined mobility elements are either primarily for crew use or are limited in mobility. This includes elements like the Lunar Terrain Vehicle (LTV) and the Pressurized Rover (PR) – which are elements of the Artemis Base Camp – and robotic missions contracted through the Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) program.

In addition, the needs and challenges that will emerge as the Artemis Program unfolds are broken down into three segments: Human Lunar Return (HLR), Foundational Exploration (FE), and Sustained Lunar Evolution (SLR). The HLR segment includes the Artemis III mission, currently scheduled for September 2026, where a crew of two will land on the lunar surface using a Starship HLS. The FE segment will coincide with Artemis IV and Artemis V (2028 and 2030), where crew sizes will expand from two to four, and the necessary infrastructure will expand.

After that, during the SLR segment, NASA plans to mount a mission a year and establish a permanent lunar habitat. Throughout this period, the demands for payloads and transportation systems will exceed current capabilities, limited to 15,000 kg (33,070 lbs) of cargo. Similar to what NASA related in their Lunar Surface Cargo whitepaper, accomplishing key mission objectives will require cargo of sizes and masses beyond these capabilities, creating the need for additional solutions.

Mobility demand forecast shows how much transportation will be needed in the future. LTV stands for Lunar Terrain Vehicle. LRV stands for Lunar Roving Vehicle. These are types of transport vehicles used on the moon. NASA compared how well LTV and LRV could meet the future transportation needs.

Isolation and Movement

As the authors state, a major issue on the lunar surface affecting mobility is the need for separation between landing sites and points of use. This separation is motivated by several factors, including science objectives, lighting conditions, and safety considerations. In short, crew vehicles, habitats, and key infrastructure will be positioned at a distance from landing sites so as not to be affected by darkness caused by the landers’ shadow, contamination by the landers, and regolith or blast ejecta created by engine plumes. Based on the level of concern, separation distances are broken down into three tiers:

Separation from lander shadowing: tens of meters (tens of yards)
Lander blast ejecta constraints: due either to separation between the lander and existing infrastructure or lander ascent (>1,000 m; ~1090 yards)
Support for aggregation of elements in ideal habitation zones from available regional landing areas: up to 5,000 m (~5470 yards)

NASA’s Moon to Mars mission architecture emphasizes the need for In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU), such as water ice, regolith, and minerals. NASA also recognizes the need to select habitation and hibernation sites that minimize the exposure to darkness from shadows caused by the local topography and the inclination of the Sun during lunar nights (which last two weeks at a time). This is easiest at higher elevations and on top of crater ridges. This necessitates two things:

Exploration, habitation, and power sites will need to be located far from landing and ISRU sites.
Traverses from landing to habitation zones could encounter slopes of up to 20 degrees.

As the authors state, these overlapping challenges can be met by ensuring systems are in place so mission elements can move away from landers once they are deployed on the surface:

“This could be done using independent or integrated mobility systems. The frequency of traverses between downslope and upslope locations would be driven by the cadence with which landers deliver cargo to the lunar surface and the mass that a given mobility system can carry on each traversal. Integrated architecture operations will necessitate non-trivial relocation and aggregation ranges for cargo and assets.”

Transportation Abilities

During the FE segment of the Artemis Program, NASA plans to expand surface crews from two to four, which will need to operate on the surface for about 30 days. This will require a wide range of mobility needs that can accommodate payloads of varying size and mass and over a range of distances. These include:

Smaller technology demonstrations: 500 to 2000 kg (~1100 to 4410 lbs)
Logistic Elements per crewed surface mission: 2,000 to 6,000 kg (~4410 to 13,230 lbs)
Habitation Systems: 12,000 to 15,000 kg (~26455 to 33,070 lbs)

The authors acknowledge that current mobility elements could provide some cargo relocation capabilities – the LTV, for example, can accommodate 800 kg (~1764 lbs) of cargo when uncrewed. However, according to the NASA team’s analysis, the mobility capacity falls short of demand by 1,000 to 15,000 kg (2,200 to 33,070 lbs) per asset for ranges of 50 to 5,000 m (~55 to 5470 yards). Moreover, the “frequency of relocation needs” (i.e., how often payloads need to be moved) will vary considerably, ranging from single operations for large elements to multiple trips a year for containers and smaller cargo.

Environments

The authors also address how lunar conditions are important when developing mobility systems. One of the greatest hazards on the Moon is regolith (aka. “moondust”), the fine silicate powder that covers much of the surface and sticks to everything it comes into contact with. There are lighting conditions where parts of the South Pole region will be shadowed due to the inclination of the Sun and permanently shadowed regions (PSRs) that experience perpetual darkness. Last is the matter of the terrain, which can be rocky or covered by 1 to 10 m (3.3 to 33 ft) of regolith and where slopes of more than 10 degrees are common.

This combination of factors, they argue, “creates a significant technological gap between existing systems and mobility demands for future exploration.” For starters, energy systems must provide enough power so vehicles can maintain sufficient speeds and carrying capacity and can operate during lunar nights. The authors also recommend conducting more studies on regolith mitigation strategies to prevent wear and tear and the effects regolith could have on electro-mechanical systems. They also stress the need for sufficient autonomy and/or teleoperation, allowing greater flexibility and range.

These autonomous systems must contend with the challenging lunar terrain, map the local topography, recognize obstacles and unpassable regions, and identify optimal pathways to reach their destinations. As the authors note, these systems could offer increased flexibility for mission planning and increase the speed of mobile assets, especially in areas where the terrain interferes with communications and makes remote operations impossible.

Artemis Program Why a Moon Base Will Need a Transport System

Energy and Environmental Demands

The white paper also addresses energy and environmental considerations. As noted already, lunar nights are two weeks long, which poses significant challenges for exploration and habitation. Currently, NASA’s Moon to Mars architecture does not specify how the base camps will be powered, though solar power is considered a safe bet. However, the team notes that generating sufficient power to accommodate lunar operations will require solar power systems with “surface mobility capabilities.”

They also note that lunar mobility systems will need to operate for 12 hours a day for up to 30 days and that proposed systems will need to deliver sufficient power to operate for six to twelve months. The thermal environments are also a serious consideration, with average daytime temperatures reaching 120 °C (248 °F) and nighttime temperatures going down to -170 °C (-274 °F). This creates issues for systems that are required to operate day and night.

Conclusion

NASA sees the need for flexible mobility systems. These systems will help astronauts and cargo move across the lunar surface. The systems must meet the needs of the Artemis Program. HLR, FE, and SLR segments define these needs. Current systems handle some mobility needs, but there is a gap. Future missions will need more advanced capabilities. The 2024 Architecture Concept Review (2024 ACR) will focus on these needs.

NASA aims to develop new mobile assets. These assets must work together smoothly and operate on their own without constant human control. The Artemis Program will rely on these assets for its first lunar missions in 2026. This includes delivering infrastructure and crew missions in the late 2020s. By the 2030s, NASA wants to have a lasting presence on the Moon. Closing these technology gaps will help astronauts explore and do science on the Moon.

Tables

Mission Segment	Crew Size	Duration	Infrastructure Needs
Human Lunar Return (HLR)	2	1-2 weeks	Initial landing and exploration infrastructure
Foundational Exploration (FE)	4	30 days	Expanded habitats, power systems, mobility solutions
Sustained Lunar Evolution (SLR)	4+	Indefinite	Permanent habitats, ISRU systems, advanced mobility

Mobility Demand	Payload Mass Range	Traversal Distance
Small technology demos	500-2000 kg	Up to 5000 m
Logistics per mission	2000-6000 kg	Up to 5000 m
Habitation systems	12000-15000 kg	Up to 5000 m

References

NASA. (2024). “Lunar Mobility Drivers and Needs” Moon to Mars Architecture white paper.
NASA. (2024). “Lunar Surface Cargo” Moon to Mars Architecture white paper.

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Particle Physics Breakthrough: Do Protons Decay? The Answer Might Be on the Moon

By Jonathan Bala June 23, 2024

Particle Physics Breakthrough: Do Protons Decay? The Answer Might Be on the Moon

Key Takeaway

A groundbreaking study investigates the possibility of using lunar samples to search for evidence of proton decay, a hypothetical particle decay that remains unobserved. This research could potentially solve one of the longstanding mysteries in physics and enhance our understanding of the universe.

Summary

Motivation for the Study: Originated in 2018, exploring paleo-detectors for detecting proton decay.
Paleo-Detectors: Examines particles over geological timeframes.
Lunar Samples: Suggested due to low atmospheric neutrino interference on the Moon.
Method: Collecting mineral samples from 5 kilometers beneath the lunar surface.
Potential Results: Could yield proton lifetimes up to 1034 years.
Significance: Proton decay’s discovery would validate theories beyond the Standard Model (SM).
Challenges: Requires deep drilling on the Moon, a logistical challenge.
Feasibility: NASA’s Artemis program could support necessary missions.
Scientific Impact: Offers new insights into fundamental theories of nature.
Future Prospects: Potential for significant advancements in particle physics.

Particle Physics Breakthrough: Do Protons Decay? The Answer Might Be on the Moon

In the quest to understand the fundamental laws of nature, physicists have long pondered the existence of proton decay. This hypothetical process, if proven, could reshape our understanding of the universe and the underlying principles of particle physics. Recently, a team of international researchers proposed an innovative method to search for evidence of proton decay by using samples from the Moon.

The Motivation Behind the Study

The journey began in 2018 with Dr. Sebastian Baum and his colleagues exploring the use of paleo-detectors—an innovative approach to examine particles over vast geological timeframes. These discussions led to a collaboration with Dr. Joshua Spitz and his PhD students, who were intrigued by the potential of paleo-detectors in the search for dark matter and proton decay. However, their initial findings indicated that atmospheric neutrinos on Earth posed significant challenges.

“About one year after finishing the atmospheric neutrino paper, Spitz suggested we consider mineral samples from the Moon,” says Dr. Patrick Stengel, a postdoctoral fellow in the Cosmology Group at INFN Ferrara Division. “Due to the lack of an atmosphere, the cosmic ray-induced neutrino flux on the Moon is highly suppressed compared to the Earth.”

The researchers proposed collecting mineral samples from more than 5 kilometers beneath the lunar surface and analyzing them for proton decay. The unique environment of the Moon, with its minimal atmospheric interference, offers a promising setting for such a study.

Table 1: Comparison of Neutrino Flux on Earth and the Moon

Parameter	Earth	Moon
Atmosphere	Present	Absent
Cosmic Ray-Induced Neutrinos	High Flux	Low Flux
Paleo-Detector Feasibility	Challenging	Promising

Dr. Stengel notes that the sensitivity of paleo-detectors on the Moon could be competitive with next-generation conventional proton decay experiments.

Significance of Searching for Proton Decay

Proton decay, first proposed by Soviet physicist Dr. Andrei Sakharov in 1967, is a theoretical process where protons decay into smaller subatomic particles. Despite extensive research, proton decay remains unobserved. Discovering it could profoundly impact our understanding of particle physics and the universe.

“Proton decay is a generic prediction of particle physics theories beyond the Standard Model,” explains Dr. Stengel. “In particular, proton decay could be one of the only low-energy predictions of Grand Unified Theories (GUTs), which attempt to combine all the forces mediating SM interactions into one force at very high energies.”

Implications for Science and Particle Physics

The discovery of proton decay would be monumental, confirming theories that extend beyond the Standard Model and potentially revealing new aspects of the fundamental theory of nature.

Table 2: Potential Implications of Proton Decay Discovery

Implication	Description
Validation of GUTs	Confirms predictions of Grand Unified Theories
Understanding Universe’s Origin	Sheds light on fundamental processes and origins
New Insights into Particle Physics	Reveals new aspects of the fundamental theory of nature

Challenges and Steps to Realize the Concept

Collecting samples from 5 kilometers beneath the lunar surface is no small feat. The deepest samples ever collected from the Moon were just under 300 centimeters during the Apollo 17 mission. On Earth, the deepest hole, the Kola Superdeep Borehole, reaches approximately 12.3 kilometers and took several years to complete.

“As we are careful not to stray too far from our respective areas of expertise related to particle physics, we chose not to speculate much at all about the actual logistics of performing such an experiment on the Moon,” says Dr. Stengel. “However, we also thought that this concept was timely as various scientific agencies are considering a return to the Moon.”

While the logistical challenges are significant, advancements in space exploration, particularly NASA’s Artemis program, could make such missions feasible. The program aims to return astronauts to the Moon, including landing the first woman and person of color on its surface.

Dr. Stengel emphasizes that only a small sample, approximately one kilogram, would be necessary to make the proposed concept competitive with conventional experiments due to the billion-year timescales involved.

Conclusion

The quest to discover proton decay represents one of the most profound scientific endeavors. By leveraging the unique environment of the Moon, this study proposes an innovative approach to overcoming the challenges faced on Earth. The potential discovery of proton decay would not only validate fundamental theories beyond the Standard Model but also open new avenues for understanding the universe and our place within it.

As the scientific community continues to push the boundaries of knowledge, the concept of using lunar samples to detect proton decay stands as a testament to human ingenuity and the relentless pursuit of understanding the cosmos. Only time will tell if this innovative approach will yield the answers we seek, but the journey itself is a testament to the spirit of scientific exploration.

“Due to the exposure of paleo-detectors to proton decay over billion-year timescales, only one kilogram of target material is necessary to be competitive with conventional experiments. In combination with the scientific motivation and the recent push towards returning humans to the Moon for scientific endeavors, we think paleo-detectors could represent the final frontier in the search for proton decay,” says Dr. Stengel.

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#ParticlePhysics, #ProtonDecay, #MoonResearch, #LunarSamples, #PaleoDetectors, #CosmicRays, #GrandUnifiedTheories, #PhysicsBreakthrough, #ScientificResearch, #NASAArtemis

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